Studies in Comparative Religion: Issues

Hungarian writer Róbert Horváth finds that Against the Modern World, by Mark Sedgwick (Oxford University Press, 2004), strangely purports to present a history of Traditionalism, yet the book contains very little of real substance regarding the ideas or writings of the central figures on whom Sedgwick focuses. In addition, Sedgwick has overlooked significant historical precedents before the appearance of Guénon, to whom he traces most of the origins of Perennialism/Tradionalism. The reviewer cites numerous flaws in the content and method of the book, and concludes that it is "practically…a gossip book, nothing more than a new false history."

Michael Fitzgerald's review of Mark Sedgwick's Against the Modern World is a detailed view of Sedwick's study of the history of Traditionalism, taking the author to task for shoddy scholarship and research, possible bias, sensationalization for the purpose of marketing, unsupported conclusions, and, most fundamental of all for a writer undertaking such a project, "a flawed understanding of Traditionalism."

Against the Modern World, written by Mark Sedgwick in 2004, has received much criticism for its lax scholarship. This review adds more detail to the criticism, revealing the extent of Sedgwick's shoddy scholarship, misrepresentations and distortions (intended or unintended), self-contradictions, and lack of clarity in use of terminology. The reviewer concludes that, in short, Sedwick is "unable to comprehend the core elements of his study," which inevitably would result in such a work, which purports to be much more. The review includes some important corrections and clarifications, which would have been of assistance to the work had the author himself been aware of them.

This in-depth review is of the World Wisdom book "Uncompromising Truth for a Compromised World" (by Samdhong Rinpoche, edited by Donovan Roebert). The author was recognized to be the reincarnation of the Fourth Samdhong Rinpoche and he was later elected to be the Kalon Tripa or Prime Minister of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile. The reviewer, Samuel Bendeck Sotillos, summarizes the intent of the various wide-ranging sections of the book and he frequently provides quotes from the Rinpoche to illustrate the themes and tone of the book. The review concludes that "These dialogues with Samdhong Rinpoche will provide substantial support to spiritual seekers as they challenge the very assumptions that are crucial to the current era. In fact [Samdhong Rinpoche] makes it clear that the crisis of the post-modern world is no longer isolated in the West alone; it has become a global issue of paramount concern to all peoples."

This book review in the online edition of Studies in Comparative Religion examines the book Introduction to Hindu Dharma: Illustrated by HH The 68th Jagadguru of Kanchi. The review is by Samuel Bendeck Sotillos, and appeared first in the journal Sophia. The review carefully summarizes the various sections of the book and concludes that "This book is an invaluable contribution to the treasury of traditional wisdom.…"

George Bird Grinnell’s classic and monumental work on the Cheyenne Indians was trimmed into 240 fully-illustrated pages in a 2008 edition (editor: Joseph A. Fitzgerald) by World Wisdom titled The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Lifeways. This review submitted by reader Samuel Bendeck Sotillos picks out several salient points of the book and stresses the special social and spiritual nature of the civilization studied by Grinnell.

This review of the 2007 World Wisdom book The Underlying Religion, summarizes the various sections, highlights some compelling ideas, gives a few quotations, and concludes that "The beauty of this book is that it provides an introduction to the essential features of the Perennial Philosophy in an understandable and digestible depth and format.…"

In Coomaraswamy's own words: “In the first part of this article our intention was to show that what ‘repentance’ really means is a ‘change of mind,’ and the birth of a ‘new man’ who, so far from being overwhelmed by the weight of past errors, is no longer the man who committed them; and in the second part, to outline the doctrine of the duality of mind on which the possibility of a ‘change of mind”’ depends, and to demonstrate its universality; to point out, in other words, that the notion and necessity of a metanoia are inseparably bound up with the formulation of the Philosophia Perennis wherever we find them.”

This article considers the ways in which seemingly unrelated animals and ideas are connected in the views and magic of the Oglala Sioux. Their attention to such things as whirlwind, cocoons and bison factor into their use of magic and protective powers by the association understood to be between them. Just as the cocoon is a protective covering for the caterpillar as it is gradually receiving the power of wind and flight, so the Oglala use the power of whirlwind to inflict confusion on their enemies for the sake of obtaining victory. Joseph Epes Brown examines the symbolism of several animals, such as the elk and spider, and includes some illustrations taken from traditional Oglala drawings. He concludes with the observation that the linking of everyday creatures and phenomena with supernatural realities account for the strong sense of the sacred that is a central characteristic of traditional Indian lifeways.

This is a translation into English blank verse of the great Sufi poet Ibn al-Farid's "Wine Ode" or "Wine-Song" (al-Khamriyyah). Translator Martin Lings renders what is perhaps Ibn al-Farid's most famous poem into a highly poetic English, though without rhyme. Lings sparingly adds some notes, which are very useful, to help modern readers understand the allegory of wine and mystical attraction to God, and the symbols often used in Sufi poetry.

Leo Schaya was perhaps the most masterful interpreter of Jewish esoterism in the light of perennialist wisdom. In this essay, Schaya offers many keys to understanding the function of the prophet Elijah (or Elias) within Jewish mystical tradition, but then Schaya expands this, still using traditional Jewish sources, to encompass a universal function for Elijah. This mysterious prophet seems to have a function that should apply to all traditional peoples, namely reinvigorating the esoteric dimensions within their respective traditions in times of need. These times of need are particularly acute as the world lurches through its modern paroxysms toward the end of this cycle of time.

These remarkable meditations where recorded by Frithjof Schuon during a trip to North Africa in 1963. The thoughts are aphoristic and in a voice not frequently found in his metaphysical writings.

Christian traditionalist Rama Coomaraswamy summarizes the content of this essay by noting that "in recent years there has been a revival of interest in the Prayer of the Name of Jesus. Various groups…have embraced this form of prayer without any foundation in its theology, and without the 'protection' that a traditional and orthodox basis provides. The author of this paper makes no attempt to present a historical or scholarly text; rather he hopes to provide the reader with an outline or introduction that will place this form of prayer in its proper perspective.…What I hope to show is that this form of prayer is deeply rooted in the Traditions of the Western Church and has been so from time immemorial. Even more, I hope to show that it is a prayer eminently suitable to contemporary man and the present times."

This review by Martin Lings of Frithjof Schuon's book Islam and the Perennial Philosophy identifies some of the highlights of the book's topics, such as the phenomenon of Shi‘ism within Islam, the question of how evil can exist in God's creation, a broad survey of many aspects of "Paradise", the limitations but also the adequateness of revealed religious form, and an examination of spiritual hyperbole versus 'logical' thinking.

The Shield of Achilles was god-fashioned for a god-man in the dawn of the age of Iron. It symbolizes, just as Achilles himself personifies, a reversal of the "downward drift of history to degeneration," a remnant of an earlier, primodial state of purity and integral wholeness. The hero and his shield show us material and man caught between two ages and natures: "It was as though for a moment the river of time flowed back on itself in brief eddies, caught up in memories of its source."

The poetry of Nizam Al-Din Mahmud Da‘i Shirazi, often called Shāh Dā‘ī is due more attention, as the translation of his "Tale of the Fish" demonstrates. A biography of the poet is followed in the article by some illumination of his thought, which closely follows that of Ibn ‘Arabi, and some commentary of the mystical poem "Tale of the Fish". The poem reveals the poet's beauty of language, even in translation, as well as a facility with using allegory to bring life to profound metaphysical truths.

Author and musician Marco Pallis shares his insights into why certain music, and particularly contrapuntal music, "provides an image of the Universe at the level of 'the Lesser Mysteries'; when practiced with this truth in mind, it will serve as a support of contemplation and the joy it incidentally evokes will be seen as a reflection of the Divine Bliss."

This poem, translated from Arabic to English, from the great Algerian freedom-fighter and Sufi, the Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir, is not overtly spiritual, but is a good example of traditional Arab and Muslim poetry showing reverence for the virile life of the nomad and his closeness to and intense awareness of the beauty and power of nature.

Schuon examines at multiple levels the traditional Sufi ternary of Fear-Love-Knowledge as the three dimensions or stations of the Sufi path. They are viewed in universal terms, applicable to the human being in general, and as "vocational" tendencies for various spiritual temperments, and then as successive degrees in a seeker's spiritual development.

In nearly all dimensions of society, the modern rationalist mentality is playing an increasingly greater role in determining how man approaches the various aspects of his life, religion being no exception. This new perspective inevitably leads to a dilemma in the minds of spiritual practitioners: how does one reconcile the apparent conflicts between the religions without simply affirming one and denouncing all others as false? Focusing primarily on the dialogue between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Martin Lings explains how a follower of each of these traditions can recognize the legitimacy of the others. Lings challenges the possibility that God could provide only one path to Salvation while simultaneously allowing such widespread diversity of belief.

The message of Muhammad can be described in terms of two key elements: a Law of conduct which governs all Muslims, and a contemplative Path by which one achieves spiritual union with God. It is this Path which constitutes Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam. Throughout the course of this introductory overview, Victor Danner discusses Sufism’s relationship to Islam as a whole, the function of the Sufi master, and the many attempts by Muslims and non-Muslims alike to marginalize its practice throughout the world.

Despite the widely held belief that music is forbidden in Islam, further investigation of Islamic culture will reveal numerous historical examples of music used as a means of spiritual practice. This article seeks to clarify what forms of music are permitted in Islam and to illuminate the effects of music on the human soul. As shown here, music has the potential to be either an aid or a hindrance to one’s spiritual growth – the determining factors are the condition of man in relation to his passions and his awareness of his primordial nature.

Prof. Austin says that the main argument of his talk, which was transcribed for this article, "is that Islam, despite its obvious sharing with other religious traditions in its expression of the basic human experience of God and the cosmos, has something peculiarly its own to say and contribute on this question. Also, that any proper understanding of this particular view depends upon a proper translation and interpretation of certain key words in the Qur’an concerned with the nature of Man and his function."

Whitall Perry poses the question: "Why did Shakespeare with his enormous imagination and intelligence infused by a triple genius—spiritual, psychological, and poetico-dramatic—bother at the very summit of his career to write this play at all?" He replies to his own query with the goal of his article: "…The point of this paper is to demonstrate that the playwright, true to his usual alchemy, is delivering a threefold message simultaneously spiritual, cosmological, and social in bearing."

Rama Coomaraswamy presents a new translation of the Institutions Liturgigues, an article composed in the mid-19th century by Dom Gueranger, abbot of Solesmes. In the text, Gueranger expresses frustration at the mistrust of church authority that led to the development of Protestantism, stressing the need for a single ecclesiastical authority among the many divergent scriptural interpretations and innovations that characterize the reformist movement. In a brief commentary following the text, Coomaraswamy links the text to modern society’s current spiritual crisis, demonstrating that Gueranger’s words are equally timely today.

Author Schuon begins this brief survey: "The Western mentality has given rise to four metaphysical perspectives which are either perfect or at least satisfactory as the case may be, namely: Platonism, including Neo-Platonism; Aristotelianism; Scholasticism; Palamism." He then suggests where the works of the philosophers Kierkegaard (in particular), as well as Heidegger and Pascal are situated in regard to those four metaphysical perspectives.

William Stoddart, writing under the nom de plume of “Peregrinus” gives an account of his travels in Russia, Poland and East Germany, focusing on the spiritual life in each region. The author also discusses religious repression in Russia as well as the influence of communism on Russia's neighboring countries.

Schuon delves into some of the most difficult aspects of Christian theology: the two "wills," and thus the two "natures," of Christ. The author also undertakes an examination of the nature of the Eucharist, concluding that the "physical reality of the elements does not exclude their divine content, any more than the real corporeality of Christ prevents the presence of the divine nature." Applying this same logic to the problem of Christ's two natures, Schuon finds compelling metaphysical arguments to show that when properly understood, varying perspectives on this problem can be said to be correct in their own way. Schuon turns to Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism to illustrate some important principles related to the seeming paradox of divine and human natures inhering in a single earthly form.

For centuries, the poems of Rūmī have remained one of the most influential forces within the Sufi tradition. The son of an accomplished Sufi practitioner, Rūmī became highly skilled in the fields of philsophy, Quaranic science, and the various exoteric sciences before taking an interest in Sufism himself. He became initiated into Sufism at the age of twenty-five and composed nearly sixty-thousand verses throughout the course of his lifetime. Seyyed Hossein Nasr explores several of the themes found throughout Rūmī's work and provides historical information regarding the life and the influence of this spiritual master.

Lord Northbourne discusses extensively the various symbolic meanings of the cross, explaining how it simultaneously represents several aspects of Christian doctrine and philosophia perennis. Each of these corresponds to a unique perspective from which the symbol can be approached. Northbourne also expounds upon the necessity to present the cross under certain conditions if its symbolic intergrity is to be maintained and observes how these conditions have sometimes been forsaken in the name of aesthetic value.

It is often believed that the mythology of "primitive" peoples represents nothing more than an early effort to explain the universe rationally and is meant to be taken literally. Therefore, attention is shifted away from myth in favor of more highly developed forms of scientific investigation. This understanding, which assumes in modern man an evolutionary superiority, overlooks the symbolic message contained within the myths of such cultures. A similar form of rationalistic attack is often conducted against religious doctrine, and has contributed to such the virtual dissapearance of the metaphysicial and intellectual heritage within Christianity. Gai Eaton discusses these and other instances in which failure to comprehend the depth of a spiritual reality leads to its dismissal as irrelevant or absurd.

Between the early and late writings of Plato there emerges a contradiction of views regarding the relationship between the divine and the material, or "sensible" world. Plato's earlier writings suggest that the sensible world is inherently evil, man must transcend his natural senses and instincts in order to achieve knowledge of God. However, passages from the Corpus Hermeticum and the Timaeus suggest an view of the world based on an intermingling between the material and the divine, for which the Soul serves as an intermediary. Georgios Gemistos Plethon recognized a significant influence of the former tendency on Christian doctrine, and sought to challenge this condemnation of the sensible world. This criticism was repeated by several prominent philosophers throughout the following centuries, most notably by Friedrich Nietzsche.

In this article, Frithjof Schuon argues against Epicurus’ formulation of the problem of evil. As Schuon explains, the world’s remoteness from God necessarily implies a degree of perversion, making the concept of a world without evil absurd. Although God is all-powerful in relation to the world, Omnipotence does not imply the ability to will the absurd. Schuon’s perspective is presented alongside those of many other prominent philosophers, including Plato, Plotinus, and St. Thomas.

Frithjof Schuon here offers some very direct observations on the major obstacles in the spiritual life for seekers within any tradition: "There is in the fallen nature of man a double infirmity and, spiritually speaking, a double obstacle; and this is on the one hand passion, which draws man outside himself while at the same time compressing him, and on the other hand pride, which shuts man within himself, while at the same time dispersing him." The article expounds upon these obstacles and how to overcome them.

René Guénon finds in Hinduism, Greek mythology and in Judaism instances of the "World Egg", which symbolizes the cosmos in a state which preceded its unfolding as well as the center of the cosmos in its present state. Its contents are the same as those symbolically contained by the heart, which Guénon demonstrates by relating the World Egg to the primordial Avatar.

The author states that "the primary object of [this essay] is to present the Indian Flood Legend as a special case of the Patriarchal Voyage (pitryâna), and at the same time in coherent and intelligible relation with other fundamental conceptions of Vedic cosmology and eschatology. Some analogies with other traditional aspects of the Flood Legend are incidentally noted." Coomaraswamy explains various doctrines regarding time in Hindu tradition as well as the symbolism of the movement through states of being, creation, avataras, salvation, and reincarnation.

Within both Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, there exist schools of thought which, while not exclusively rationalist, utilize reason and logic in the context of intuitively realized metaphysical truth. Throughout its development, Islamic philosophy was influenced by many of these philosophical schools. Comparative study of these different traditions together with historical study can reveal their influence more completely than would be possible by using the historical approach alone. It can also benefit practicing Muslims by introducting them to philosophical perspectives outside of modern, humanistic modes of thought which seem to dominate current discussion. Furthermore, comparative philosophy will enrich Western understanding of Islamic doctrine.

Gai Eaton contrasts the increasingly prevalent view that man is in no way essentially different from other animals and therefore has no special rights with a doctrine characteristic of several spiritual traditions: that man is unique and granted certain privileges as well as obligated to uphold certain responsibilites. He explains how man has failed to meet these responsibilites by abusing animals and other natural resources, as well as behaving harmfully towards other men. Eaton uses the destruction of American Indian civilization as the primary illustration of the latter tendency.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr summarized this essay as describing "the metaphysical significance of mâyâ as both veil and principle of relativization and manifestation of the Absolute." Although the terms Âtmâ and mâyâ come from the Vedantic tradition, the essay includes examples of a number of Christian doctrines considered from the standpoint of these metaphysical principles.

Rama P. Coomaraswamy writes from the perspective of a modern day Catholic, discussing the confusing mesh for many modern practitioners of “‘pre-Vatican’ training—however poor — [and] the pronouncements and sermons of the modern clergy.” He describes the confusion, errors and assumptions present in much of modern religious literature and thought.

Much of the quality of a civilization can be inferred by its daily apparel. In this discussion of traditional Indonesian textiles, Hobson and Abdurachman focus on two methods of decoration: Ikat weaving and Batik printing, explaining the cosmological symbolism of the methods themselves as well as common design motifs.

Both Indian Cosmology and modern science constitute attempts to understand the cosmos at its most basic level. However, modern science is essentially materialistic, seeking an explanation of the universe in terms of "basic particles", whereas Hindu Cosmology is concerned with non-substantial, "basic principles." The adoption of science as the ultimate approach to understanding the cosmos is based on the assumption that the universe must be reduceable to physical phenomena alone. Ian Watson offers Hindu Vedānta, which rejects this notion, as an alternative.

The axiom of relativism is that “one can never escape from human subjectivity.” It posits that there is no objective reality, and thus no Truth or Sovereign Good. Schuon exposes the absurdity of this attitude from a multitude of angles in this essay. In the course of the discussion, the author examines the nature of human intelligence, several fundamental errors of modern psychology, the "rebellious spirit" of latter times, and our true human vocation.

An act of contrition attributed to revered Sufi practitioner Abu Madyan with a brief historical introduction by R. W. Austin.

Hindu society prescribes a standard of purity for women that requires rigorous dedication and sacrifice. Likening the story of Sita to the Crucifixion of Christ, Iengar explains how her banishment by Rama served not only to purify the generations of women before and after her, but also to reveal the incessant pride and skepticism of man.

Between Platonic philosophy and Christian theology there exists a contrast regarding the role of logic in understanding divine Reality. According to Platonist thought, there is nothing within the structure of divine Reality which does not conform to logical analysis. This led the Platonists to dismiss such doctrines as the Trinity as absurd. Christian theology, while not denying the validity and significance of logic, maintain that metaphysicial Reality is beyond the reach of logic, and as such can only be express in paradoxical terms.

The modern age is one in which error and evil are regarded as having equal standing to that of truth and goodness, and beauty is seen as a frivolous luxury that must be sacrificed for the purposes of economic growth. Lord Northbourne refutes these ideas by demonstrating the metaphysicial link between truth, goodness, and beauty, showing that goodness cannot be found in error or illusion, and that beauty is not a "subjective impression or pleasurable accident," but an "essential aspect of reality itself."

The actions and beliefs leading to the modern environmental crisis can be traced to a commonly held misunderstanding of human nature. Ignorance of the Absolute, as well as the "Self which resides at the Centre of man's being," has led to the development of materialistic ideals and the degradation of the humanities in the West. Worse still, civilizations in the East have begun to adopt the modern Western notion of progress, furthering man's isolation from the Centre. Nasr urges modern societies to shift their focus inward, challenge their conceptions of scientific "objectivity," and recall Centre which is the origin of all things.

Lord Northbourne responds to a fear that has developed among the general public that due to factors such as increasingly dangerous military technology, population growth and scarcity of natural resources, the human civilization as we know it may not be able to survive. His solution involves shifting attention away from the common goals of material wealth and individual prosperity and working towards the establishment of a society founded upon values such as humility, compassion, and renunciation of “worldly superfluities”. The development of these virtues is dependent upon awareness and love of God.

Schuon’s treatment of the Sunnah (“ways of acting, customs and examples of Muhammad…[which are] precedents [that] constitute the norm, at all levels, of Moslem life”) notes that the Sunnah “comprises several dimensions: physical, moral, social, spiritual, and others besides,” and then focuses upon an inner Sunnah. As is his custom, the author addresses all these dimensions and then turns special attention to those of the most elevated spiritual value. He shows that “the spiritual Sunnah, concerning the ‘remembrance of God’ (dhikr) and the principles of the ‘journey’… is very parsimonious as regards what is truly essential in it. Basically, it contains all the [prophetic] traditions referring to the relationship between God and man.…” Schuon notes that there is “another domain which must be rigorously distinguished from this spiritual Sunnah, although it may sometimes seem to overlap with it, and this is the moral Sunnah.” He helps the reader separate the two, which are often confused, and enables the reader to discover what is most universal and essential in the Sunnah of the Prophet of Islam.

Roger Lipsey discusses the philosopher Ananda Coomaraswamy. Lipsey uses Coomaraswamy’s philosophy of each individual being comprised of an outer and an inner man, “man and the Man in this man”, and uses this to examine Coomaraswamy’s life through his search for self-knowledge. Thus in discussing his philosophies and his search for truth, we can better understand him.

For centuries, the recitation of the Nembutsu has been one of the central practices in the Pure Land tradition of Buddhism. Shojun Bando explains how this practice was selected by Honen, whose message was in turn transmitted by Shinran in the form of the Kyo-Gyo-Shin-Sho. Throughout the course of his discussion, Bando summarizes each of the six parts of this classic work, using the teachings of Shinran as a framework for a broader explanation of the fundamental doctrines of Pure Land thought.

Ian Watson makes ‘scattered observations’ on the decline in thinking and the rise of the secular-materialist mindset in the world. His observations center on his perception that self-reflection and contemplation on the inner has, for the most part, vanished and that it is this absence that has led to a general degradation in thought.

Music has a unique place among the traditional arts because unlike the visual arts, it lacks material form, thus enabling man to forget his earthly body and recall the original state of being which preceded it. The ability to forget one’s self is essential in order to perform traditional Persian music. Nasr analyses the various aspect of this music, showing how they each help to bring about a spiritual ascent that is characteristic of Sufi practice. He also relates performance of traditional music to the concept of the neverending “spiritual concert” to which the perfect gnostic is always listening.

In this brief introduction to the art of relaxation, Ursula Darkins explains how the ability to relax requires one to become receptive; this effectively means learning to control the habits of tension which one develops as a result of the capacity for rational thought. From the ability to be receptive naturally arises the ability to concentrate, since concentration is a passive function, although it is rarely understood as such. Darkins concludes by discussing the relationship between degress of tension in the mind and the body.

Guénon here undertakes to show how the Taoist tradition is an integral part, though mostly hidden, of the ancient Chinese tradition with its origin in pre-history. This earlier tradition, first visible to history in the I Ching, adapted itself to later conditions through the birth of two parallel and reciprocal doctrinal forms, Taoism and Confucianism. Guénon’s more general objective is to illustrate how “traditional doctrines…contain in themselves from the very beginning the possibilities of all conceivable developments…and also the possibilities of all the adaptations which might be required by later circumstances.” The author demonstrates how the particular application here, namely the Chinese tradition, from a common root was divided into a doctrine of “pure metaphysics” (Taoism) and “the practical domain [or]…the realm of social applications” (Confucianism). The last part of the essay considers how the “real influence of Taoism can be extremely important [in China], while always remaining hidden and invisible.”

Alan Watts considered himself for a time to be among the contemporaries of Schuon, Guénon, and other exponents of the Perennial Philosphy, but later disassociated himself from the movement. In this article, Whitall N. Perry delivers a thorough critique of the perspective outlined in Watts’ book, Beyond Theology, linking his ideas to those of J. Krishnamurti, also known as Alcyone. In the course of this discussions he highlights several key differences between traditional metaphysics and the form of spirituality referred to by Watts as “Godmanship.” He concludes by listing the common characteristics found among all such “spokesmen for a New Religion”.

In "Man and Certainty" Frithjof Schuon explores the essential characteristics of human intelligence and that which sets it apart from all other creation: its capacity to comprehend the Absolute. The author constructs a series of examples from everyday life and observations and arrivea at the conclusion that man must exercise his fullest intelligence by conceiving the Absolute. This must be followed by the decision to seek It, thus finding our fullest happiness in It. Schuon once again intersperses metaphysical reasoning with profound observations on employing intellect, will, and virtue in order to lead the life of the spirit. This essay is also notable for its extensive comments on the act of making choices in life. In a world of inner and outer uncertainties, Schuon points his readers to choices that can lead to one of the great goals of the spiritual life: certainty.

A renowned scholar of Arabic and Sufism, Victor Danner, applies an historical and linguistic approach to illustrate various aspects of Sufism, the esoteric domain of Islam. The terms "Sufi" and its derivative, "Sufism," have for many years enticed scholars to offer a variety of opinions that, ultimately, tend to elucidate little other than one's powers of speculation. In this essay Danner sums up the research and tells a fascinating story of the development of the term and of Islamic mysticism. Danner's thesis centers around the point that the term "Sufi" came into use "because of the readaptation that the Islamic tradition had to make in view of a decline that threatened its spiritual bases." Thus, a return to the original interiorizing spirit of Islam was employed to neutralize centuries of exteriorizing ritual and dogma, and this through the return to the simple purity of the symbol of the wearing of wool ("suf" in Arabic).

One of the great interpreters of Buddhism, particularly in its Tibetan form, was Marco Pallis. In this extended essay, Pallis devotes himself to demonstating the traditional concept that "both these principles must be brought into play and harmoniously blended if ever spirituality is to ripen its proper fruit in enlightenment" In the first, more general part of the essay, Pallis surveys a number of doctrines, tells stories from Tibetan culture, explains Buddhist symbols, considers spiritual virtues, and finds common ground in the ideas and practices of several religions. In the second part, he examines "a number of examples, all based on personal observation or experience in the Tibetan world, of how the conjoint principle of Wisdom and Method operates in various circumstances of spiritual life."

In this two-part essay, A.K. Coomaraswamy sets out to prove "that our use of the term 'aesthetic' forbids us also to speak of art as pertaining to the 'higher things of life' or the immortal part of us; that the distinction of 'fine' from 'applied' art, and corresponding manufacture of art in studios and artless industry in factories, takes it for granted that neither the artist nor the artisan shall be a whole man.…" Using primarily Platonic and Hindu sources, he shows quite convincingly that modern arts education and production may result in an endless variety of arts for leisure, but that this situation encourages neither the understanding of traditional art, nor the production of arts that are "effective" in ennobling people with those "higher things of life."

Author Shojun Bando introduces us to Jodo Buddhism, little known to many, through a more familiar form: Zen Buddhism. His purpose is to correct the "deplorable fact that Jodo Buddhism has long been misunderstood by many people as being something little different from Christianity." His intention is to "describe the character of Jodo Buddhism in contrast with the Zen way of attaining the Buddhist principle, sūnyatā" (non-substantiality). Bando's work here ultimately clears up a number of simplistic misunderstandings about both forms of Buddhism and gives us a greater appreciation of both.

Schuon's essay "Remarks on some Kings of France" draws sharp distinctions between the worldliness and "civilizationism" of the later King XIV, and the piety and modesty of the earlier St. Louis. Schuon's objective, however, is to demonstrate that the "king, like the pontiff, is not merely an official, he is also, by reason of his central position, an object of contemplation, in the sense of the Sanskrit term darshan: to benefit from the darshan of a saint is to be penetrated by his appearance in all its unassessable aspects.…" This essay is a fascinating study of how a civilization reaches its "exact limit of normal development" which is manifested by its great, and spiritually centered, leaders.

Author Marco Pallis here presents a detailed and comprehensive explanation of the fundamental Buddhist concept of karma. In order to accomplish this, he also explains such related terms as samsara, dharma, "selfhood," "rebirth," and "Buddhahood." Although the emphasis is clearly upon the Buddhist perspective, Pallis finds ways to make points about spiritual states of mind, human actions, and eschatological states that apply equally to Christians and practitioners of other faiths.

Lord Northbourne in this essay analyzes the viewpoint of many modern scientists that certain fundamental events occurring in the domain of sub-atomic physics are exempt from laws of causality—in other words, that these events are random, or occur by chance. The author is most concerned that "from this position it is but a step to a declaration that the ruling principle of the universe is chance, and not a principle of strict causality. There are then no longer any certainties, but only probabilities.…" Of course, this is a challenge to any philosophy that "takes a metaphysical or religious turn." Lord Northbourne leads the reader through a logical process of reasoning to conclude that within our reality there is, indeed, order by design, and that the Principle and Its manifestations cannot be reduced to the random operations of chance.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr begins this essay with the observation that "it was in the destiny of Islam as the last religion of the present humanity to integrate into its intellectual and spiritual universe all the elements of the knowledge and wisdom of earlier traditions that were in accordance with it unitary perspective." Islam's tendency and, one might add, mission to integrate earlier religious figures, sciences, and traditional thought into its own system, includes the field of philosophy. However, while much attention has been given to the influence of ancient Graeco-Alexandrian elements of thought upon Islamic philosophy, the ancient Iranian elements have largely been neglected. Through a survey of these latter influences and the history of the development of Islamic philosophy, Dr. Nasr addresses this imbalance and convincingly shows that the particular genius of Persian "intellection" has cast an indelible and unique character upon centuries of Islamic thought.

Dr. Ralph (W.J.) Austin presents sixty-four selected sayings from the Hikam of the great Sufi shaykh Ibn ‘Atā’ Allāh al-Iskandarī (d. 1309). Austin himself has translated these sayings of spiritual counsel intended for the Shaykh's disciples. He comments that the Shaykh's Hikam "must rank among the finest works of spiritual counsel, not only in Islam, but in the world." The importance of Ibn ‘Atā’ Allāh's book is well known in Sufi studies, but it should have a general appeal because, as Austin writes, "the central theme of the Hikam is undoubtedly the continuous and all-pervading contemplation or consciousness of God." This is clear in the well-chosen verses translated and selected for this essay.

D. M. Deed here addresses and attempts to correct the attitude that spiritual realization is somehow "altogether beyond the capacity of any normal, ordinary person." She writes that spiritual realization is, instead, "a long process which takes us step by step from one realization to the next, each step leading us to a greater, deeper and fuller experience as we go forward. It is both an illumination and an experience of discovery." Applying easily understood language, personal experiences, and Biblical references, Deed shares her thoughts on what this process of discovery might be in relation to a Christian's spiritual development.

T'an-luan (Jp: Donran), who lived from 476-542, was a Chinese Buddhist monk credited by Honen as the founder of Pure Land Buddhism in China. T'an-luan is also considered the Third Patriarch in Japanese Jodo Shinshu Buddhism. Though he lived many centuries before the founder of Jodo Shinshu, Shinran, his writings survived and were influential on Honen and his student, Shinran. This essay surveys the history of the development of Jodo Shinshu thought, informing students of this branch of Buddhism of the critical role T'an-luan's played in forming central Shin concepts.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr examines the Zoroastrian and Islamic traditions within the context of the history of Persia. Nasr notes that "although these traditions are of different nature and structure, they are related most of all by the fact that they are authentic traditions and not something else, that is, they are messages from the world of the spirit differing in their outward form but united in their inner essence." Thus, while many forms will be different in the two traditions, underlying principles will often found to be similar. In this essay, Nasr is primarily concerned with some "basic doctrines and themes which have appeared in one form or another in the religion, mysticism and philosophy of Persia throughout its history and which characterize the intellectual and spiritual life of the Persians in their totality." He surveys those doctrines and themes to show how they have formed an essential part of the overall Persian spiritual worldview.

Besides Biblical descriptions, author Leo Schaya turns to some Talmudic and rabbinical writings and oral traditions to give a general, but also a more esoteric, understanding of Jewish doctrines concerning the Temple of Jerusalem. Schaya reviews a number of aspects under which the Presence of God dwells within the physical Temple, but also, by extension and in an immanent sense, within the heart of the Jewish seeker after God. The symbolism of the Temple's features is related, Schaya tells us, to spiritual realities that come to inhabit man's inner reality as well.

"The Human Margin" may be one of the most important essays written by the prolific Schuon. It is a detailed, carefully developed explanation of how and why the divine influence "always allows for a 'human margin' [within revealed religious traditions] where it exerts itself only in an indirect fashion, yielding to ethnic or cultural factors." This margin takes into account human limitations and imperfections as well as the best of human qualities, providing a diversity of doctrinal interpretations and spiritual paths that can accommodate the full range of human types and conditions. Schuon surveys many traditions and doctrines, but focuses on Christian forms to illustrate his thesis, which is central to understanding what has been called the underlying unity of religions, as well as theological divergences within a single tradition.

Author Philip Sherrard distinguishes between "sexual love" as it is commonly understood and the "sacramental form of sexual love [which] is not simply a human emotion or impulse or even a created cosmic or elemental force. Still less is it to be identified simply with a bodily or a somato-psychic energy. It is, in its origins, a spiritual energy. It is rooted in divine life itself and its principle, so to say, is placed by God in man and woman in their creation. Hence, to be united in this love is to find oneself returned to oneself, to one's full being and primal condition." Using mostly Christian sources, he shows that the "highest spiritual potentialities" can be unlocked through the sacramentalization of this most physical and natural of acts.

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy explores the innocent-sounding question "Why exhibit works of art?" Beyond the task of protecting valuable relics, exhibiting works of art must have an educational purpose. In delving into the significance of this purpose, Coomaraswamy covers topics such as the vanity of much of modern art, the necessity of understanding the techniques and uses of ancient art (going beyond the limitations of our own modern psychology and aesthetics), the Platonic view of the arts, and more. This well structured discussion is an excellent primer on the Traditionalist/Perennialist view on the meaning of "art" and its proper usages in real, everyday lives outside of the confines of a museum.

In this article author Michel Valsan uses the recent French translation of Un Saint Musulman du Vingtième Siècle: Le Cheikh al-‘Alawī (A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century: Shaikh Ahmad al-Alawi) by Martin Lings, to discuss the life of its subject, the influential Algerian Sufi master, Shaikh Ahmed al' Alawi. Vâlsan focuses upon the "initiatic function" of the Shaikh as illustrated through some of the many visions that disciples had of him along with the prophetic presence of Jesus, who plays an important role in certain aspects of esoteric Islam.

In this essay Frithjof Schuon clarifies common misconceptions among Westerners concerning the apparently "absurd" and "paradoxical" nature of the koan in Zen Buddhism. Its essential nature is not its "absurdity" or illogicality. Its role, rather, is to express "the spiritual experience of a given master in a symbolical—and intentionally paradoxical—form, the significance of which is only verifiable by undergoing the selfsame experience" of satori (illumination). The fundamental intention of Zen and the koan is thus the supernatural perception of things in the "Eternal Present", a state wherein the mind "finds itself rooted in the Absolute, both intellectually and existentially". As a corrective to current individualistic and anti-traditional misunderstandings of Zen in the West, Schuon also emphasizes the essential relationship between traditional Zen practice and the use of canonized sacred texts taught and read within the community of Buddhist practitioners.

In referring back to an earlier essay, "The Heart and the Cave," René Guénon explores the mutual relationship between the universal symbols of the mountain and the cave in various traditions. He suggests that the mountain ("the spiritual center" or "Absolute Reality") can also be represented by an upward-pointing triangle, and that the cave ("manifestation") can be represented by a downward-pointing triangle. He goes on to describe the many ways in which the two triangles (and thus the "mountain" and the "cave") can interact in geometric space. For example, the upward-pointing triangle can have the downward-pointing triangle contained within it, or outside and below it, and so on. These geometrical relationships recall, for Guénon, a multitude of relationships in sacred space that represent the meeting of divine realities and their earthly manifestations.

This article relates the situation of Hinduism in India as it has come in contact with modernism and Islam. The result of these two influences on Hindu culture has had an inevitably threatening result on Hindu religion. Saran emphasizes the impossibility of the privatization of religion in the Hindu tradition as it has been implied by secular and outside social influences. In addition to modernism and Islam, Saran also discusses the implications of British colonial rule and Christianity as these also limited the sustainability of the Hindu tradition. He questions the compatibility of Hindu principles with the ideas of social reform introduced by western ideals and industries in part because this synthesis of society overturns the doctrine of karma that is central to Hindu belief.

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy reveals the symbolism of archery that underlies this seemingly mundane sport. He describes its original function in initiation ceremonies of disciples, across a number of traditions, as they dedicated themselves to their spiritual paths. The author sums up the essay with the observations that "one sees how in a traditional society every necessary activity can be also the Way, and that in such a society there is nothing profane; a condition the reverse of that to be seen in secular societies, where there is nothing sacred. We see that even a "sport" may also be a yoga, and [that] the active and contemplative lives, outer and inner man can be unified in a single act of being in which both selves cooperate."

This essay traces the gradual spiritual decline of Western music from the sacred monophony of Christian Gregorian Chant, through the increasingly secular polyphonic music of the Middle Ages, to later Renaissance, Operatic, and Romantic styles. Godwin shows that the evermore ornamented styles of Western music are a departure from the ancient and original function of music, which symbolized, beyond the capacity of language, the presence of God in the world. With the discovery of polyphonic sound, for instance, Godwin claims that Western culture began to delight in human creativity, forgetting the deeper meaning and function of music and turning it into “a kind of substitute for religion or mysticism”.

Using the Arabic language as the tool for his case study, Burckhardt explores its influence on Islamic art and spirituality. The nomadic life of the Arabs contributed to the consistency of the Arab language because it is when a culture settles into one place that its language becomes attached to things and institutions and therefore finds its decay. He describes Arab linguistically as having an “auditive intuition”. It is based in active association, instead of static imagery. This relates to Islamic art as it is manifested by images and calligraphy that evoke rhythm and movement and stories that are formed from logic and rhetoric instead of the sedentary nature of a statue or a painting of a different culture and language. All of these things contribute to illustrating the spiritual nature of Islam in its incantations and litanies and Burckhardt uses these observations to draw conclusions regarding the theology and practice of the Islamic faith.

Guenon offers a linguistic introduction to the symbolism of the cave, the heart and the mountain as they function as spiritual metaphor. He describes the heart and the cave as "the place of the 'second birth'" because its eternal movement inward suggests the beginning of development. He continues on to explore the paradoxical nature of existence, which encourages the unity between opposites. Specifically, Guenon examines the example of this paradox in the etymological roots of the words heart, cave and mountain as they exist in various languages. This article is meant as an introduction to a deeper exploration of the symbolic nature of these images.

Lings discusses spiritual alchemy as it is affected by the seven deadly sins. By first playing with the opposite significance of the numbers seven and eight—seven representing life and holiness, eight representing death—Lings illustrates how the seven deadly sins are both holy and evil. He suggests that the sources of these sins are latent spiritual energy and when one sets out on a spiritual journey, one awakens these desires. For instance, the passion of anger is able to become holy anger as it is to become sinful anger. Lings makes the point that in the case of sincerity, the object of sincerity is just as important as the subject, for to be sincere about the wrong thing is more dangerous that general insincerity. He illustrates that the danger of the spiritual journey is that one is as likely to become a miser as one is to become a saint.

Lord Northbourne examines the education system as a means to evaluate the state of our society and its access to intellectual freedom. He states that scientific formulas have overtaken the common ways of knowing, depending on empirical evidence as a means of knowing truth. This mode of knowledge views religion as an “obstacle to progress” since faith implies that truth is known intuitively. Therefore, it removes religion as a framework for the education and knowledge. Northbourne describes the nature of religion and the presence of the spiritual in the world with all of its questions and complexities, concluding that children are ultimately the ones who experience faith most purely. By deducing religion to information and not experience, children are neglected the opportunity to participate in their spiritual natures. He concludes that while science can be true it can only be partly true. Northbourne advocates that people should be educated based on how to think and not what to think.

The goal of this essay is, as author Harold Talbott puts it, that by "sketching a few features of the first lesson in Dharma as a Lama might present it using the device of the Round of Existence, we can describe the first activity of the path, hearing Dharma expounded." The other two activities of the Buddhist spiritual path, Pondering and Meditation, also are treated in passing, but the focus of this piece is on the means by which the Tibetan Vajrayana tradition utilizes the "teaching presence of realized masters" as the necessary catalyst in all spiritual learning, or "hearing." This means that whether the activity be the study of scripture or the contemplation of sacred art, the influence of a Lama is, in the end, central to the efficacy of the activity. Talbott uses the traditional Tibetan diagram of the "Round of Existence" as the organizing scheme by which he explains the precepts, principles, and virtues that the aspirant must actualize on the path to Wisdom in the Vajrayana tradition.

In reviewing this book, Seyyed Hossein Nasr gives high praise to the translator, stating that "serious students of Sufism…must be…grateful for [Titus Burckhardt's] having turned to this much lesser known category of Sufi writings consisting of letters, addresses and table-talks of Sufi masters, an excellent example of which is found in these letters of Shaikh ad-Darqawi. Dr. Nasr notes that these letters from a renowned Sufi master deal less with doctrine and more with "concrete problems and questions of the spiritual life and are often answers to specific questions posed by disciples. Hence they represent a precious treasury of instructions that are of value particularly to those who aspire to walk upon the path of realization and whose interest in Sufism and the spiritual life in general is more practical than theoretical." Since its initial publication, this book has become a classic of Sufi studies.

Reviewer J. C. Cooper finds this book by Arnaud Desjardins to be a well-balanced mix of background on Buddhism (with "an excellent exposition on some of the misunderstandings of Tantrayana and of its true meaning"), and the observations of author Desjardins upon the cultural differences between the traditional Tibetan culture that he encountered there during the course of making a film, and the West. The reviewer seems particularly impressed with the observations on the temperament of children and the differences in their respective educational formation.

Readers will not be surprised to find reviewer Whitall N. Perry once more brandishing his ever-sharp critical pen to expose errors in a book on religion. This time, he highlights errors in a book on Pope Pius XII. The book, The Silence of Pius XII, by Carlo Falconi, purports to be an impartial investigation into whether or not Pope Pius XII ignored the atrocities of the Nazis and whether or not he, and the Church, could have done more to stop them. Perry contends that the investigation's results are, in fact, very weighted in the negative, and ignore contrary evidence showing the Pope's efforts on behalf of the persecuted Jews. Perry suggests that the conclusions of Falconi, and others, are probably colored by motives stemming from opposition to traditional Catholicism, and thus to a pope known for his adherence to tradition.

J. C. Cooper, in this review of Science is God, sums up its virtues with "The book is eminently readable and contains a great deal of sense." She highlights several fundamental points that the author, Professor David F. Horrobin, makes in the book, covering the correct limits of science, its inability to prove or disprove religious phenomena such as miracles, its appropriate place in education and reforms that must be implemented to assure this, and the expanding of "science" to such inherently subjective disciplines as Economics, Sociology and Education.

This is another review by J. C. Cooper. Here, she examines a book that is an account of its author's archaeological travels, and whose purpose is to "bring to us a sense of meaning of the past and give awareness of man's striving toward fulfillment and a valid communion between the dead and the living, correlating the past and the present." The reviewer suggests that the musings of the author might make this book one that traditionalist/perennialist readers would enjoy for its approach towards ancient peoples.

Rather than reviewing The Cipher of Genesis, by Carlo Snares, J. C. Cooper merely summarizes the main thesis of the book. This thesis is that the chapter of Genesis is entirely symbolical and must be interpreted accordingly. It is, says Carlo Snares, part of the Cabala. The reader is left to guess that Cooper is either undecided or is skeptical on whether or not the entire chapter of Genesis is in a sort of "code" and nothing means what it seems to mean. In other words, we do not know from this review if Snares' deciphering of this "cipher" can be reconciled with traditional Jewish or Christian hermeneutics or whether it is a view that reflects a fantastical interpretation of just one busy mind.

J. C. Cooper summarizes some new books received by the journal: God's First Love by Friedrich Heer; Introducing Psychology, edited by D. S. Wright and Ann Taylor; Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry, by V. Meyer and Edward S. Chesser; Youth Holds the Key, by H. W. Heason; and A Chime of Windbells: A Year of Japanese Haiku in English Verse, a translation of Japanese poems by Harold Stewart.

By first observing the difference in critical faculty between Eastern and Western thought, Frithjof Schuon considers the use of truisms in religious literature as they affect religious thought and action. The hyperbolic nature of religious writings and truisms contain more than moral lessons particular to a certain faith, but also include implications that relate to a wider realm of faith and belief. The impracticalities of religious teachings, in such parables as the camel passing through the eye of a needle or the spiritual man who is perfect to the point of disappearance speak less about spiritual effort then about the Divine existence. The tendency in religious practice to interpret these sayings as literal is derived from a tendency toward intellections and therefore results in religious moralism. Schuon explores the balance between this intellectualism and more typically Eastern thought.

Frithjof Schuon examines the criteria for changing the liturgy – by wishing to preserve its primitive simplicity or by ridding it of redundant accretions from past ages. Schuon explains the possible dangers of trying to return to the origin while ignoring the flowering of the sacred within the tradition over time for “it possesses the intrinsic value of a tangible crystallization of the supernatural.” He points out that the error of today is in seeing in the liturgy something that can be invented and that it must be conformed to “our times.” He also considers the importance of language in the liturgy and what makes one language more sacred than another as well of the error of vulgarization and pedantry.

Marco Pallis’s review of the book The Vatican Oracle by Father Brocard Sewell becomes an article in its own right as it looks closely at the causes and effects of the innovations proposed in the Catholic Church in the light of the author’s thoughtful concerns. Pallis uses these concerns to examine the relationship of the western and eastern church and what its disunity means, the differing attitude by the eastern and western churches towards the liturgy, the hierarchy, contemplation and brotherhood, the modern world and the abuse of nature.

Ananda Coomaraswamy relates a variety of myths concerning Khwaja Khadir in both Indian and Persian stories which he traces back to the more ancient traditions from the Koran; the Elijah, Alexander, St. George and Gilgamesh legend; and to Sumeria and the Rig Vedas. “Khizr [i.e. Khadir] is at home in both worlds, the dark and the light, but above all master of the flowing River of Life in the Land of Darkness: he is at once the guardian and genius of vegetation and of the Water of Life, and corresponds to Soma and Gandharva in Vedic mythology, and in many respects to Varuna himself.”

In this lecture Seyyed Hossein Nasr shows how Islam portrays man as both being of the very best stature and the very lowest of the low – a situation which demands that man is perennially, albeit often unconsciously, searching for his lost self. In normal traditional society the quest for one’s true self is contained and accommodated within that society in a revealed religion and the mystical path within it. Nasr traces the role of Sufism as one such mystical path that reunites man with his true self in any age and any place. Further, one who is able to realize the inner truths of religion as such may be able to understand other paths and religions profoundly, as long as one is able “to go from the phenomena to the noumena, from the form to the essence wherein resides the truths of all religions and where alone a religion can be really understood and accepted.”

I.R.Y.C (Joscelyn) Godwin affords us a glimpse of the traditional world of music in this introduction to the Institutione Musicae of Boethius in which there are described three different types of musicians: the theorist, composer and performer and the hierarchical roles they play. Irwin contrasts this with modern day music in which the theorist has disappeared and the performer is now given pride of place with the audience making up the third element. As a result, contemplativity, which is the true end of music, has all but disappeared. However, all is not lost as the mechanical production of music allows us to become familiar with great works and in hearing them repeatedly opens a door onto the spiritual realm.

Martin Lings reviews this book by Frithjof Schuon which is a complement to Understanding Islam and which explains in depth some of the problems that Christianity sees in Islam in the sanctity of the Prophet, for example, or the belittling of the human. Schuon explains that to be truly human and thus sanctified is to fit the divine mould which is Origin, Archetype, Norm and Goal. In Sufism this is expressed in a quaternary of divine Names: The First, the Last, the Outward and the Inward. Lings points out that these, “form the basis of this book, whose every chapter flows, as it were, along one or more of these dimensions.” Chapters under review include those on Jesus, Mary, the Archangels and the Five Divine Presences.

With ironic humor, Whitall N. Perry traces the career and teachings of Gopi Krishna as set out in this book. Having received an exemplary traditional upbringing, Gopi Krishna later espoused Modernism and rationality and set about using yoga as a biological tool to achieve the “bliss of unembodied existence”. However, things went awry when he awakened the solar nerve by mistake.... Perry concludes that “not even the ‘imprimatur’ of an authority like Spiegelberg [who wrote the introduction to the book] can get this man into the company of the saints, which in any case would be irrelevant if not incongruous to a deist concerned with biological evolution rather than traditional orthodoxy.”

René Guénon explores the hierarchical assumption of symbols over rites in the context of spiritual expression. He suggests that symbols are permanent representations of rites and that rites are symbols that are actions “performed in time”. He uses the example of the sign of the cross to suggest that this gesture is a symbol expressed in bodily movement. While symbols are represented in their figure, rites are represented by a performance, but both of these take place on a transcendent plane that is beyond human creation or the origin of the mind and serve to communicate “with the higher states of being.”

Using St. Francis of Assisi’s writings, particularly his Laudes, Frithjof Schuon emphasizes the necessary interdependence of such virtues as Simplicity, Wisdom, Charity and Purity. Focusing on the Virgin Mary, both St. Francis and Schuon illustrate the ways in which the collaboration of these virtues opens the soul as a “receptacle of the Divine Presence.” In teaching both submission to God and detachment from the world, they affirm a necessary presence in the world and connection with other people, but without dependence on temporal things and with indifference toward egoism and self-fulfillment. No one can neglect one virtue without tainting all of them, and if one finds complete acceptance of one virtue, then all others are contained within it.

Despite the changing style of art, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy defends the universality and consistency of iconography and symbolism. Coomaraswamy discusses instances in art where a deified woman offers her milk to a supplicant. This motif signifies an adoption and therefore a deification of the recipient, specifically in the case of the Virgin Mary and St. Bernard. These examples are paralleled with other iconographic motifs that represent the attainment of the highest spiritual station—“adoption” to divine filiation, and thus to deification. In order to understand the greater spiritual meanings of these symbols in art, one must have knowledge beyond the evolving styles of art so that the picture can be transcended and meaning can be discovered in its greater context of spiritual lessons.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr explains the essential role of the sheikh in Sufism as it is illustrated in Persian literature. The sheikh is responsible for initiating his disciples into the spiritual world. By possessing a connection to the Divine, the sheikh has the means to direct a disciple on the Path to paradise. Nasr emphasizes the importance of discernment as a disciple seeks to be guided and initiated by a sheikh, as there is corruption and deceit among many who claim to have this spiritual power. Quoting numerous passages, particularly from Rumi, Nasr illustrates various aspects of the spiritual master as the door through which a sincere aspirant can access mysteries of the Divine.

In this article Philip Sherrard explains the theories and writing of Teilhard De Chardin as they apply to the split of science and faith in modern thought and the ways in which Chardin seeks to reconcile this separation. Chardin’s evolutionary theory is fueled by the power of “becoming” and “self creation”. It contains both physical and conscious progression in a personal and collective context. To Chardin, the individual is not responsible for the highest realization of self, but instead the highest form of the universe. In order to reconcile these differences of the personal and the collective, Chardin applies a faith-oriented theory in which he integrates the role of the Omega (or the Christ) in which the personal and the collective potentials are centered on each other and therefore both are fulfilled. Besides the inconsistencies this theory demonstrates in regard to faith, Sherrard also explores the way that it proves science as an incomplete mode of philosophy.

Whitall N. Perry begins by offering A Dictionary of Comparative Religion a necessary commendation as a long-awaited text for this field of study. However, his praise quickly moves to criticism as he examines the way in which the breadth of the book sacrifices a certain quality of scholarship. Perry proceeds to cite a number of essential texts and authors that are never mentioned in the volume. He even suggests that whereas Christianity would at one time have been favored, “the pendulum has swung too far” and that the space devoted to Christianity is insufficient. Offering a suggestion for a revised format, Perry admits that the resultant cost needed for such an effort would likely limit demand for the book to academics alone.

In this review, The Book of the Book is dismissed as “a publisher’s gimmick” with its fifteen pages of print and 250 blank pages following. Idries Shah gives his new teachings on Sufism which are claimed to rid Sufism of the incorrect assumption that it is a practice based on magic, but this review suggests that because of Shah’s supposedly “bold insights” and “fascinating revelations” that this is exactly the way in which Sufism will be characterized. The reviewer notes that Shah’s writings may encourage some readers to undertake a search for true Sufism, but they encourage others to walk away from it as mere “hocus pocus”.

Yussif Abdulhayy responds to a previous letter regarding the African tradition as animism. He suggests that this term cannot be comprehensive in its description. He continues to offer a question regarding a tribe of white men in South Africa and multiple attempts to trace them without any success.

H. F. Rubinstein offers a defense of Teilhard De Chardin in response to several articles. Rubinstein supplies three “tentative inferences” that characterize his view on Chardin’s evolutionary theory, and the relationship between God and man as affected by the fall, and the reconciliatory role of religion.

In this article, Schuon discusses the implications of Dante’s placing a saint (Celestine V) in hell in the “Divine Comedy.” Schuon argues that Dante wished to “replace the illegitimate worldliness of the popes with the legitimate lay status of the emperors” (69). The author believes that this pope would not have favored the worldly and humanist revolution of the Renaissance.

Hultkrantz argues that religion always “borrows its expressions from the setting or milieu in which man appears,” using examples taken from the Shoshoni culture. Linguistically, the Shoshoni classify animals in relation to their cultural importance. For instance, the buffalo (a very important food source) has several names, some depending on the age and sex of the animal. Different body parts of the buffalo also have different names. However, ravens and crows (of little cultural importance) are both classified under the same name. In this article, Hultrantz argues that this linguistic feature carries over into Shoshoni religious beliefs, as well, and that the Shoshoni also classify animals in relation to natural and supernatural reality. The essay includes a particularly interesting examination of the two types of soul that, according to the Shoshoni, belong to man and, unlike other animals, to the bear as well.

This essay, attributed to Patrick A. Moore but actually by his father, Alvin Moore, Jr., is an exegesis of the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Matthew 25:1-13). Moore explores the symbolism of this enigmatic parable and, making much use of the thinking of St. Thomas Aquinas and others, he comes to the conclusion that the purpose of the story is to express "ingathering…concentration, the perfection of virtue, and the return to the Edenic state or the Earthly Paradise." It is Moore's contention that such perfection of the individual brings about "identification with the Eternal and Unique Word of God," thus true mystical union.

In this article, Burkhardt explains that Islamic artwork strives to represent two important aspects: (1) to preserve the “primordial dignity of man,” and (2) to visually remind people of Islam’s fundamental denial of idols and idolatry. The artwork serves to reinforce the idea that there should be nothing between man and the invisible presence of God.

Maureen Seneviratne discusses the history and religious symbolism of the Hindu shrine of the god of Kataragama, which is located in what is now Sri Lanka. The cult of Kataragama is that of the Hindu war-god.

The author discusses similarities and differences between Greco-Roman Stoicism and Hinduism. He argues that the reason for these similarities is that there may be universally valid moral truths which have been known to “men in all times and places and are not therefore exclusive to one particular society or culture”. However, Bishop is concerned mostly with making an objective comparison of the two perspectives, instead of attempting to come to a conclusion about their origins. After comparing various ideas concerning the nature of virtue, duty, honor, and greatness, Bishop makes this conclusion: “The Humanist and Hindu call us back to the original criterion of greatness which is a qualitative not quantitative one. Greatness is measured not by what has but by what one is. Being not having is the primary category”.

J.C. Cooper summarizes Thakur’s argument concerning similarities and differences between Hindu and Christian ethics. Cooper discusses the basis of Thakur’s argument, which is based on his contrasts and comparisons of the creation myths of the two religions.

In this review, Cooper discusses the work of Professor Johansson. Johansson is primarily concerned with how the Buddhist concept of Nirvana is perceived—is it a psychological, metaphysical, or ethical state, or a combination of them all? Cooper goes on to discuss and evaluate Johansson’s approach to his research.

The two books listed first were originally published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and were republished by The Singing Tree Press in 1970. The first book is apparently very well-known in the study of religion, and is described as “a collection of examples of human mentality in religion.” The second book is a study of this form of monasticism in England, and is well illustrated. And the third book is an account of Ittoten and the teaching of Tenko San, “…an important spiritual force in modern Japan.”

Citing examples from Islamic, Christian, and Buddhist doctrine, Schuon discusses various concepts of Reality, Goodness, Manifestation, the Absolute, Infinity, and All Possibility: “If in our daily experience we are confronted by things that are real at their own level—if ‘such and such’ realities actually exist in the world—this is because before all else there is Reality ‘as such’, which is not the world but by which the world comes to be. And if the world exists, it is because Reality as such, or the Absolute, includes Infinity or All-possibility, from which the world is a consequence and of which it is a content.”

Burckhardt comments on the symbolic importance of the image of the Heavenly Jerusalem, which first appeared in a medieval manuscript. He compares this image side-by-side with a drawing of the mandala of Vaikuntha, the home of the Hindu god, Vishnu. Also comparing relevant scriptural texts, Bruckhardt is more interested in the objective comparison of the two images/texts than in drawing conclusions as to why and how such similarities came into existence.

In this article, Lings discusses the idea of the Uncreated Principial Substance in relation to the Christian doctrine of original sin, as well as common 20th century attitudes towards human evolution. The author claims that it is a “sign of the times” that most modern people capitulate unconsciously and blithely to a diminished awareness of the divine presence. Rather than reacting strongly to this critical deprivation, which has been brought about through the actions of some who are not held accountable, instead modern men believe that they are now better than at any time in history.

Gelfand discusses the religious beliefs of the Shona in regards to such concepts as Peace, Happiness, Freedom, and Beauty. He contrasts the Shona philosophy of munhu—or the human being with an almost complete neglect of the material aspects of life—with ideas concerning material wealth held by cultures of the Western world.

Bando discusses the Buddhist concept of jōbutso, also known as Enlightenment or the attainment of Buddhahood. He argues that Shinran’s Pure Land teaching differs in its conception of jōbutso in that in the Pure Land teaching, one cannot achieve Buddhahood in life, due to an inability to detach ourselves from the “defilement” of earthly life.

"While Western philosophy assumes that mere intelligence is all that is necessary, Eastern wisdom demands that the student must have attained control over himself and his physical body, his emotions and reactions, before wisdom will reveal her secrets," J.C. Cooper argues in her summary and critique of Saher’s book. Breaking the book into parts, Cooper discusses what she feels are the most noteworthy points Saher makes regarding the similarities and contrasts between Western and Eastern spiritual philosophy.

After giving a short introduction to the history of thought surrounding evolutionism and religious doctrine, Martin Lings discusses and criticizes Dewar’s condemnation of evolutionism. Lings then presents and summarizes the ways in which Dewar constructs and supports his argument, approaching it from many different angles (physical, geological, paleontological, geographical, etc.). In the conclusion of his review, Lings says, “Most people are altogether ignorant of this [Ed.: i.e. that the theory of evolution requires its own 'miraculous' leaps of faith] and other equally significant facts that The Transformist Illusion lays bare. One result of this ignorance is the flood of books by non-scientists about the history of mankind, books for adults and books for children, which take evolution altogether for granted…”

In this review, J.C. Cooper summarizes and supports this book by of Trungpa on the Buddhist emphasis on the experience of truth versus education via books and teachers alone. Cooper outlines the theme of Trungpa’s book in this accessible and short review. She praises the author’s use of allegories and parables, and ends the review with this praise: "In these days of so much pinchbeck Hindu and Buddhist writing, it is a relief and a privilege to be given the real gold."

Rupert Gleadow writes to the editor in regard to a previously published correspondence by Mr. R. Bolton. Gleadow claims that Bolton does not recognize both the historical and character analysis perspectives on the zodiac. In the second letter, John M. Addey comments on Dr. Hans Bandmann’s letter in the autumn issue. Addey points out that Bandmann is incorrect in fixing the “heaven of the signs” as the locus of the heavenly archetypes, pointing out that the latter are necessarily beyond any fixed assignment in the realm of space and time.

Originally created to be read at a conference on positive action that could be taken in current issues based on religion, Schuon’s article discusses the necessity to precipitate all action with a correct understanding of Truth. “If one's aim is to save mankind, one must first know what it means to be a man; if one wishes to defend the Spirit, one must know what is Spirit.”

Saran discusses the revolution that Gandhi caused within the schism of the ‘freedom-cum-nationalist movement’ in India; how Gandhi went about changing the foundation, goals and nature of the freedom movement and the effects this had both on the movement and on the spiritual revival within India. According to Saran, “Gandhi changed the nature of Indian politics by spiritualizing it.” Saran goes on to investigate the meaning and philosophy behind Gandhi’s life and works, contrasting this philosophy with the modern world which Gandhi attempted to combat.

Brown’s article deals with three main points. First, the essential values of the Plains Indians and the “universal quality of the underlying values” which “constitute for these original Americans a valid dialect of what has been called the Religio Perennis.” Secondly, the question of whether it is possible with the constant assault of the modern world, for this way of cultural and spiritual life to continue? Thirdly, the author’s contemporary assessment of the situation of the wellbeing of the North American Plains Indian spiritual life.

Lord Northbourne lays out what he sees as the essential factors to the much debated question of the relationship between religion and science; what that relationship should be and what it is in the modern world. Northbourne explains what is meant by these terms and why the distinction and relationship is necessary to understanding our views of the universe and our roles in it.

The second half of this article about the life of Fray Juan de los Angeles continues with the interview between master and friar. The conversation is a varied one with the maser addressing such issues as the need for a thirst and love of God, the question of Divine Justice, and the importance of charity. In this dialogue the master also outlines the three main types of men, namely the animal, rational and divine. This, and other topics such as the nature of Christ, and how one can find God inside oneself, are all discussed in this dialogue.

In this review RWJ Austen discusses the topic of this book as well as the background of the author, Ain al-Qudat al-Hamadhani, who was a Sufi and Shafi’ite lawyer. This man was accused of being a heretic and had to defend himself by writing an explanation that his statements were misinterpreted and that the accusers were not properly informed regarding the topic. Austen concludes in his review that the book is well translated and very helpful for the public.

FS writes to the editor in this letter to clarify an inconsistency within a previous article titled “The Ancient Wisdom of Africa” he wishes to point out a contradictory statement that the author made regarding the profound wisdom of traditional African people, profound enough even to equal the Asians. However, FS also points out that the author later makes a statement regarding the potential Jewish origins of a Zulu medicine man. FS wishes to draw attention to this statement and further examines the issue of different races and intelligences within his letter.

According to Dr Bandmann “Mr Bolton obviously confuses zodiacal signs with zodiacal constellations”, Dr Bandmann then continues to outline the sun and stars in their location and symbolism, especially according to the Ptolomaic world view. He states that it should be “clearly understood that this heaven of the zodiacal signs is the place of heavenly prototypes or archetypes.

The importance of belief and the relation between belief and understanding are discussed in this article. Schuon makes the point that it is important to believe in something, even if one doesn’t fully understand it. The distinction between symbol and faith are also discussed here; Schuon argues that faith is akin to love, and that a path of faith or love is often chosen over one of reason. Another distinction examined here is the one between the ‘dry’ and ‘moist’ paths, where the dry is of course one of reason and speculation on Truth, while the moist is focused on love and faith. The article concludes with an examination of some specific paths where these principles of ‘dry’ and ‘moist’, faith-based and reason-based paths are present.

The life and work of Thomas Merton are described in this article; the author recalls the role that Mr. Merton played in the Catholic Church, and his positive influence in the communication between different religions. The author here recalls his own meeting with Mr. Merton and his personal impressions of the man. Merton’s view of the Church as well as his interest in other religions such as Zen Buddhism are presented as being a part of his “overwhelming urge to lose himself in God”. The reader is provided with a concise account of the remarkable life of Mr. Merton, from his initial entry into the Catholic Church to his later hermitage and retreat.

This article discusses the issue of revelation, as well as the concept of creating or developing tradition within the historical and religious context of Judaism. On the subject of tradition Scholem argues that “tradition asserts itself ever more emphatically as a new religious value and as a category of religious thinking. It becomes the medium through which creative forces express themselves.” He further addresses this issue by discussing the development and use of the Oral Torah and the Written Torah, and how they relate to the process of creating tradition and then examining it. Scholem also draws from numerous historical and textual sources that support his argument.

The life of Juan de los Angeles is discussed here, beginning with his birth and focusing mainly on his life in the Franciscan order, his work with the church of San Diego de Sevilla, and his devotion to the Empress. Friar Juan also wrote numerous books on the spiritual life which are discussed briefly in this article. His life, which was a difficult one, was also a means for Friar Juan to discuss the concepts and objectives of life as a balance of the active and contemplative vocation. The article concludes with a dialogue between the Friar and Master regarding the “interior or centered life of the soul”.

Burckhardt begins his article with an interesting comparison of the Virgin Mary’s intelligence, which he considers the highest possible for humans with the seven sciences, which he claims are an “expression of so many faculties of the soul”. He continues to address these sciences and classifies them as grammar, logic, and rhetoric, as the first three, and arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy respectively. Apparently these seven sciences, which do not of course fit the term of science as used today, are represented by the seven planets. Other correlations related to these sciences include their relation to numbers, as well as their representation on the door of Chartres Cathedral.

The reviewer Marco Pallis praises the authors’ work in creating such a well-laid out book, according to Pallis this book provides a clear account of the daily life of Tibetans, including their clothing, housing and food. The arts and crafts of Tibet are also a main topic of the book, with a particular emphasis on handmade Tibetan rugs. The history of Tibet is also discussed in this book, up to the 20th century when Tibet became more affected by the British. The reviewer concludes that “A work like the present one is not merely a pointer to past Tibetan glories; indirectly it is a call to self questioning on the part of all who will read with attention, wherever they may belong.”

“Man’s need today is to recover the traditionally recognized God Consciousness” argues J.C. Cooper in his review of Hugh l’Anson Faussett’s book. Cooper continues in his summary of this book by quoting statements from the book such as "each level of our being and the centers which govern them are released from the distorting grasp of the ego” and then are able to “experience life as an expression of something greater than itself".

J.C. Cooper reviews this book which he says is a collection of lectures given at the University of Delhi; these lectures discuss religions like Hinduism and Christianity, as well as lesser known religions like Jainism, Buddhism, and the non-dualism of Shankara and Ramanuja. According to the reviewer Smart regards Christianity “over-intellectualized” and “rejecting Natural Theology”. Cooper claims that an argument of this book is that “two aspects of religion must not merely live in harmony and equality, but must be complementary”.

A series of new books reviewed by J.C. Cooper including Honest to Man; The Faith of Other Men; Realisation of Oneness; The Paradox of Self-Denial; and Kindred Soul

Mr R Bolton addresses the article by Guenon titled The Symbolism of the Fish with some criticisms of aspects relating to the zodiac that need to be clarified. He argues that because of the actual position of the sun “whatever is referred to a sign in the (traditional) Zodiac must now be referred to the sign immediately before it in order”.

Ms Maria Warren writes to the Editor regarding some letters on the subject of “Changes in the Catholic Church”. Although Ms Warren agrees that the changes in mass and other progressive developments within Catholicism are regrettable, she still wishes to point out that it does not make the mass itself, or the people within Catholicism, invalid.

Mr. Robert Bolton writes to the editor on the topic of the universality of different religions; he says that the doctrines of different religions can be different without one being superior to another. Despite the fact that different religions can all be respected Mr Bolton does not mean that one can believe or use different doctrines simultaneously. He also discusses his impressions on the difference between theology and metaphysics, with the latter being more universal than the former. Finally, Mr Bolton argues of orthodoxy that “to be joined to a tradition while implicitly denying its total adequacy seems to me a false and unintelligible position, though I have long tried to see how it could be otherwise.”

Schuon discusses the limitations and issues that stem from restrictive theories in Moslem scholasticism with particular focus on Ash‘arite theology. Schuon follows Ash‘arite theology from founding principles through to conclusions, describing the logical flaws inherent in ‘totalitarian obedientialism.’

Guénon discusses the symbolism of ‘the language of the birds’, found throughout religious tradition. Citing passages from Christian, Hindu, and Islamic sources, Understanding ‘the language of the birds’ often refers, according to Guénon, to understanding the language of the angels “which is symbolized in the human world by rhythmic language.” Guénon goes on to discuss the meaning of poetry as was originally understood – to be a comprehension of the Divine.

A short introductory note by the Editor describes this article as one whose interest is to “illustrates a normal characteristic of all traditional civilizations, namely the dependence of their arts (and sciences) on the religious principle.” “Sacred music was for the Tibetans an essential part of their spiritual endeavour,” the paper goes on to explain, giving a history of Tibetan spirituality and music and their intertwined nature.

Burckhardt examines the history and symbolism of the chess-board of its pieces. From its roots in India through its passages into Persia and into Europe the chess-board is both a military stratagem and a symbol of space and the universe, as well as a symbol of the nature of the soul and the relationship between will and fate.

Patrick Bowen recounts his time traveling in “the wild Bushlands of the Northern Transvaal, Portuguese East Africa and Mashonaland” where he spent his time learning of the religious practices of the Isanusi (“a term, popularly but improperly interpreted as "Witch Doctor."”) Bowen describes the various holy men he encountered and the teachings they imparted.

The two-volume encyclopedia of Hinduism by Benjamin Walker is, according to reviewer Whitall Perry, a “manageable survey of this phenomenon [Hinduism] in a manner at once accessible and convincing to any serious lay reader in need of an erudite reference manual that is something less than a library.” Perry notes several ‘inevitable’ areas that do not receive the detail one would hope for, and criticizes Walker for his dismissal of the caste system and discounting of the Bhagavadgitâ. He notes however, that to reject the book on this basis would be a waste; “it seems, alas, that it often takes one kind of person to document spirituality and another to understand it.”

Reviewer A.A. praises Robert Conquest’s book “Religion in the U.S.S.R.” for its detached prose which allows the stark statistics and details of the persecution of religion within communist Russia to stand out all the more clearly. While all religions have suffered under the communist regime, Buddhism in particular has suffered, as A.A. highlights in his review; “In Buryatia, there were 36 datsans and 16,000 lamas in 1916, while in 1960…there were no more than 2 datsans and a few dozen lamas!”

Titus Burckhardt responds to a letter written in defense of Teilhard De Chardin, condemning Teilhard’s thesis; calling it “a Trojan horse to introduce materialism and progressism into the very bosom of the religion.”

Philip Sherrard responds to a letter written by Mr. Bolton regarding Sherrard’s article Man and the presence of evil in Christian and Platonic Doctrine. “It is so easy to appeal to "complete principles" of "true metaphysics" [Ed: as Bolton does in his letter rebutting Sherrard’s article] while forgetting that this appeal begs an endless number of questions… I cannot answer Mr. Bolton's letter without first going into the whole question of the nature and authority of the principles of the doctrine he asserts—obviously something that cannot be done in a letter.”

Martin Lings discusses the symbolism of several Lithuanian songs passed down through oral tradition. Though part of the “Lithuanian folklore” tradition, these songs contain symbolism from diverse spiritual, cultural, and religious traditions. He addresses the misconception that folklore in general is “popular” in origin, emphasizing that a great deal of folklore is derived from preserved relics of former traditions. The selected Lithuanian songs are used to illustrate his points about the diverse origins of folklore traditions and the “subconscious collective memory” that often informs them.

Lord Northbourne summarizes the “nature of the… changes brought about in agriculture by the rise to dominance of the modern outlook.” His concerns for the future of agriculture include the use of chemical methods, the loss of economic independence for farmers, and the standardization of products using preservatives and substitutes. This agricultural revolution has brought about “a divorce between man and nature” and furthermore a loss of the view that all natural things are interrelated, moving “together toward the fulfillment of the plan of [God].” Lord Northbourne asserts that the man who uses his “God-given dominion over nature” for his own “aggrandizement” might soon find himself struggling against the forces of Nature.

René Guénon discusses the symbolism of the fish and its centrality to the beginnings of several religions. A symbol of northern origins, its presence having been noted in North Germany and Scandinavia, the fish soon made its way to Central Asia and was directly related to the starting point of the Primordial Tradition. Guénon first focuses on its symbolism in the Hindu and Christian traditions as representative of a preserver or savior figure. He then presents the symbolism of the fish as a common thread among multiple traditions, including those of the Greeks and Chaldaeans.

Philip Sherrard examines the religious convictions of psychologist C.G Jung. According to Sherrard, Jung “denied the objective existence of those metaphysical or meta-psychical realities which theological statements presuppose”, yet his argument that there is no truth but purely subjective truth is itself one of the “categorical statements lacking all so-called empirical basis” that he criticizes religions for. Thus, Sherrad concludes, Jung’s statements point to a religious viewpoint of his very own. Jung felt that “God Himself had disavowed theology and the Church founded upon it,” and Sherrard postulates that Jung saw himself as a religious leader for the new, scientific, modern era.

Michael Negus presents “an interpretation of the fossil record within the framework of cycles and principles rather from a viewpoint of accidentals and ‘progress’ which characterize the profane mentality.” Negus presents fossil science with the guiding theme it has its first principle in God.

Gai Eaton reviews Sacred Art in East and West: Its Principles and Methods by Titus Burckhardt, a book he calls “a study of what real art has been in the past and of what it still is in those few regions of the world that have not yet been completely overrun by modernism.” The book focuses on the sacred art of Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Taoism.

A series of new books reviewed by J. C. Cooper, including Crisis in Consciousness; Religion in Practice; Man in Search of Immortality; The World's Living Religions; The Meaning and End of Religion; Movement and Emptiness; Meditation; The English Presbyterians; The Church Unbound; Septem Sermones ad Mortuos; Being-in-the-World; Bible of the World; The Song Celestial

Petrae Defensor writes in response to a letter from John Sanderson (regarding an article by Lois Lang-Sims which criticized the modern Catholic Church). Patrae Defensor agrees with Sims, arguing that while the Church will remain to the end of time, that does not mean that strong action is not required to preserve large sections of the tradition from being invalidated. “If he cannot follow Christ's precedent and drive out the desecrators, then let him stay at home and pray for himself and for the Church… If Christ is an example to be followed, let the Church judge and condemn our times as he did his.”

C.P. Mathews writes in response to Sanderson’s letter, focusing on Sanderson’s suggestion that Christian society could function in a technological future with ease so long as its participants are dedicated to God. Mathews writes that “in all traditional activities sacred symbolism is omnipresent: every step is pregnant with metaphysical meaning at the same time as it is a step towards the fulfilment of a material achievement. Modern technology is not only completely devoid of higher content, but by its very nature suggests the opposite.” Mathews goes on to discuss how the modern world, in its anti-traditionalist mindset, is a detriment to any spiritual seeker.

H.F. Rubinstein writes in defense of Teilhard de Chardin (author of The Phenomenon of Man), citing less well-known literary works by Teilhard, as well as character references, to promote a more ‘tolerant’ view of Teilhard and his ideas.

“This idea of "grace," which translates a divine function, is by no means unintelligible in the light of traditional Buddhist teachings, being in fact implicit in every known form of spirituality, the Buddhist form included.” Marco Pallis attempts to reconcile the idea of grace within the Buddhist tradition, as well as delve into the Buddhist philosophies and compare these to other religions.

This article by Usha Chatterji provides an excellent overall account of the cult of the Goddess, or the Great Goddess. The term Shakti literally means “power”; thus, according to Chatterji, the cult of the Goddess focuses on the image of God as feminine, or God as a productive and nourishing force. The various forms of the Great Goddess, or individual goddesses are also discussed in this article. The reader is also provided with a clear account of the historical development of the Great Goddess and the role She plays in Hindu worship.

The concept of the journey of life, and the inevitability of death are examined in this article with the idea that man is not his own master, but rather is susceptible to influences from the world. The topic of man’s nature in his journey in life toward death is presented primarily in Christian terms, but with a broad spectrum of philosophies from this religion. The author incorporates numerous quotes in the article including some from writers and thinkers like Shakespeare, St Gregory of Sinai, Hermes and Dante. The article concludes with the statement that “an understanding of mans nature, implying an understanding of our principle and destiny, is most necessary for anyone who has a serious interest in truth…”

According to Abu Bakr Siraj Ad-Din, the ideas of “progress” and “development” are misleading, for their meaning in the world is false, while their meaning within a spiritual context, such as the development of the soul, is more accurate. The author compares the idea of progress within different historical and cultural backdrops, such as the renaissance in Europe with Muslim civilization. Another topic discussed is how the clothing, movements, and architecture of a traditional civilization contribute to the welfare of man. He concludes with the statement that “All that I have mentioned is outward: but the outward acts upon the inward and a man’s clothes and his home are the nearest of all things to his soul…”

In this article Casey seeks to “indicate some of the problems involved in our attempt as Christians to enter into fruitful dialogue with the scientific thought of the west and the metaphysical doctrines of the east.” He points out that a lot of common problems in communication arise from the misunderstanding of words like science, metaphysics, revelation, religion and so forth. His goal is to examine the use of words and come to some general understanding of their true meaning, he begins by simply outlining some of these terms. Then Casey examines these terms within a Christian theological context, while simultaneously commenting on the future of Christianity internally and in relation to the rest of the world.

The influence of modern science on nature and the way that this has affected the everyday existence and view of man is the main topic of this article. Nasr discusses the idea that man has become inwardly detached from the Intellect which is what keeps him tied to something permanent. The development of secular science and how it has focused people on the idea of change and becoming is another topic discussed in this article. The concepts of permanence and impermanence in science as opposed to nature are covered with careful detail in this article. Towards the end Nasr concludes that “as far as the present sciences of nature are concerned, much though they differ from the various traditional cosmologies, even here there is an element of permanence is one takes science for what it really is.”

RWJ Austin reviews Islam and the Divine Comedy, which is a comparison of the concepts in the Divine Comedy with Islamic philosophy. The author of this book draws from various examples in the Divine Comedy, the Hadith, and the Quran, to illustrate his point that there is a connection between the two perspectives. The author argues further that Dante himself may actually have drawn from these Islamic writings in his own work. The reviewer says of the author that he “is once again the champion of his own faith. Indeed this attitude towards Islam, so common among scholars in his time, and the many derogatory asides he makes on both the Qur’an and the Prophet mar what is otherwise a most readable and informative work.”

Philosopher Frithjof Schuon examines the “Virgin Mary not solely in her quality as Mother of Jesus, but above all as Prophetess for all the descendants of Abraham.” Schuon discusses her symbolic role as personification of Equilibrium in the Bible and Divine Generosity in the Koran, quoting extensively from both texts. He also expands on the ‘Marian knowledge’ to be gained from both of these texts, providing numerous passages.

Pierre Grison’s article deals with the Taoist spiritual text of the Golden Flower (T'ai-yi kin-hua tsong-che). Grison devotes his article in part to reclaiming the text from its famous commentary by physiatrist Carl Jung; detailing the erroneous conclusions that come from a person who is not a legitimate authority on spiritual matters dissecting a profound religion text. “A Taoist text, probably of late but ambiguous date, together with a commentary of the XVIIIth century whereof the tendencies, when all's said and done, do not always coincide exactly with those of the text thus commented upon.” He continues, giving his own explanation and interpretation of the text, supplying comparisons where valid, and contrasting his deciphering of the text with that of Jung’s.

Martin Lings discusses the symbolism of water found in the Qu'ran, particularly its ‘inseparable’ connotations to mercy and revelation. Lings examines several passages from the Qu'ran, citing numerous examples and explaining the spiritual significance of each selection. He also engages in a broader discussion of the water symbolism in the Holy Scripture as a whole, reconciling the imagery with more negative connotations such as the great flood.

Elémire Zolla’s article examines in detail the art of breathing in the West, both as a spiritual practice and as a meditation tool. He investigates the historical legacy and prominent figures of this tradition, as well as the controversies and evolution. He takes time as well to compare the Western use of breathing with the more advanced and well-known Eastern tradition of yoga.

Esteemed author Titus Burckhardt reviews the writings and perspectives of Seyyed Hossein Nasr through four of his books: An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine, Three Muslim Sages: Avicenna—Suhrawardî—Ibn Arabi, Islamic Studies, Essays on Law and Society, the Sciences, Philosophy and Sufism, and Ideals and Realities of Islam. Burckhardt examines not only the essential contents and messages of each of Nasr’s books, but also the author’s perspectives and influences. Burkhardt also provides a brief biography of Seyyed Nasr’s life, supplying useful background for Nasr’s writings and philosophies.

G. J. Yorke’s discussion of Buddhist meditation begins with a brief history of Buddhism before delving into the practice of Buddhist meditation. Yorke outlines the various methods and practices within the tradition, and explains the philosophy behind the practices in simple, easy-to-understand language. Yorke also includes in his discussion both his personal experiences as well as guidelines for would be practitioners, making this article a useful resource for those wishing either a cursory introduction to Buddhism, or more advanced practitioners looking for direction.

Responding to Donald H. Bishop’s article "Forgiveness in Religious Thought", Marco Pallis expands on the themes of mercy and forgiveness in the world religions, particularly in Buddhism. He discusses as well the necessary counterbalance of justice; the different manifestations of this principle in the world religions and some errors in perception regarding its role in the various religions.

Christopher Woodman reviews Frithjof Schuon’s In the Tracks of Buddhism, discussing both the material of the book and the difficult language it is presented in. Woodman calls the book “as difficult as it is important” and “uncompromising”; deeply informative and deeply challenging, the latter due to the terse wording which forces the reader to pay rapt attention. According to Woodman, the book assumes a certain familiarity with Buddhism on the part of the reader, with the exception of the traditions of Jodo and Shinto which are gone into in detail and explained assuming a poorer understanding.

K.E. Pringle reviews Seyyed Hossein Nasr’s book The Encounter of Man and Nature (which is based on four lectures delivered at the University of Chicago during May 1966.) Nasr’s book deals with four main topics: the run-away dominance of science and the issues that result, the historical basis of the sciences and their relationship to religion, metaphysical principles through the ages as regard science and nature, and the hypothetical benefits that might occur from a rediscovery and application of metaphysics (particularly in the West and Christianity). Pringle recommends the book “to those studying religion and science and to those who seek firm ground, having come to doubt the current belief in "progress.”

Philip Sherrard reviews Kathleen Raine’s book Defending Ancient Spring. “The book is a collection of essays either on poets or on topics directly related to poetry—on myth and symbol, and the use of the beautiful.” Raine’s book is written in defense of the traditional springs and the poets who have found them. “From this point of view, all art—all true art—is always concerned with the expression of themes connected with the nature of the soul and what is beyond the soul…” Raines discusses both historical examples while also touching on the dilemma of modern poets who seek to speak on traditional themes in a non-traditional world.

R. Bolton’s letter is in response to Philip Sherrard’s article, "Man and the presence of Evil in Christian and Platonic Doctrine.” Bolton strongly objects to Sherrard’s assertion that there is a conflict between Platonic ideals and Christian philosophy on several subjects, to begin with that there is a conflict between the ideas of emanation and creation. Second, Bolton disputes the claim by Sherrard that Platonism does not admit anything above intellect. Thirdly, Bolton objects to the idea that emanation and creation are equal. Bolton goes on to discuss the “irreversibility" of all relationships between the Infinite and the finite.”

John Sanderston’s letter is in response to a letter from Lois Lang-Sims (in the Winter 1968 issue) which was critical of the Roman Catholic Church. Sanderson writes in defense of the church, stating that while he agrees with many of the specifics, the Church itself is still valid.

F. W. McMorran also writes in response to Lang-Sims’, also in defense of the church. McMorran disputes several assertions (presumably made by Lang-Sims), including the idea that the change from Latin to the vernacular in the Mass invalidates either the service or the priesthood. He concludes citing the Pope’s own criticism of the mania for “change and novelty” and assertion “that the traditional doctrines of the Church still stand,” as evidence that the Church remains valid.

In this exposition of the spiritual life, Marco Pallis explains that the interior life is the fruit of the marriage of Wisdom and Method – “Wisdom which illuminates with the truth” and Method which provides the act by which the knower becomes what he knows. The supreme instrument of Method is the Life of Prayer in the widest sense, enshrined in religious tradition which serves to maintain the balance between theory and practice. The methodic invocation of a Sacred Name or formula is at the centre of the process, the Name “being first the apparent object of invocation and then its subject, until finally the subject-object distinction disappears altogether.”

Wesley E. Needham chronicles the life of Dilowa Gegen Hutukhtu (1883-1965) who was a Mongolian refugee befriended by the author. A man of immense erudition, cheerfulness and compassion, Hutukhtu began his early years having been recognized as the eighteenth incarnation of Telopa, an Indian Buddhist saint (988-1069). He was one of the thirteen highest incarnate dignitaries of the Buddhist religion in Outer Mongolia until 1930 when Buddhism was banned by the Mongol People's Revolutionary Party. This saintly man then began a life of exile and wandering until his final sojourn in the United States where he played an important role in disseminating Tibetan Buddhism.

Phillip Sherrard explains the differences and similarities in the Platonic and Christian views of evil. According to Plato, he says, man is created through necessity and his contact with evil is a natural part of creation as evil is immanent in matter. Christian doctrine, however, maintains that man is normally good and his fall proceeds from his freedom to choose, that evil is neither normal nor natural and that man’s salvation is the restoration to the normal state. In the light of these two doctrines of necessity versus freedom, the author examines their concepts of God’s responsibility for evil, His relationship with the soul and the role of time.

Angus Mcnab relates the story behind the presence of a Muslim saint’s statue in Toledo Cathedral. A tale of honor and magnanimity, it underscores what true piety and respect for the other can accomplish with regard to harmony and inter-communal peace.

In his review of Alchemy, Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul by Titus Burckhardt, Seyyed Hossein Nasr highlights the point made in this book of the errors of the current interpretation of alchemy as either a precursor of modern chemistry or as a science of the psyche alone. For as to the latter he says that it is impossible to study the psyche “without reference to the luminous world of the Spirit which alone can comprehend the soul.” The reviewer praises the book for presenting all aspects of alchemy in the light of the Spirit including its relation to art, and particularly for the explanation of the correspondence between the alchemical process and the stages of the spiritual life.

Agehananda Bharat, a master of tantrik practice, explains the finer points of this misunderstood way in his book reviewed by Om Prakash Sharma. Tantra integrates all manifestation excluding nothing to achieve non-duality. In this way even the common fare of ordinary man can be transmuted into a means of liberation. The reviewer explains that the Mantra – a sacred and powerful formula, is a key to tuning the soul to higher forms of spirituality. He concludes by warning the would-be practitioner of the dangers of approaching Tantra without qualified guidance and without the right intention.

In reviewing Dr Radhakrishnan’s book, William Stoddard points out that the author is himself enmeshed in modernism and yet is perplexed that tradition is relegated to the background - unaware that this is caused by abandoning the truths within the tradition. The reviewer reminds us that ‘Christ prophesied: "Scandal there must be," and added the implacable warning: "and woe to him through whom the scandal cometh!” Stoddard concludes ‘In an age of tireless but unblessed technology one of religion's most important roles is to remind those willing to listen of this fatally neglected truth.’

American vitality and openness to “the other” comes in for praise in this review of Nancy Wilson Ross’s illustrated book on eastern traditions whose approach the reviewer, Kathleen Raine, finds refreshing. Condemning her own country’s erstwhile narrowness and impenetrability to the spirituality of India, as well as those purists who scorn American Zen for missing its doctrinal truth, she suggests that Zen’s natural, non-mythological and historical quality may be a door through which America, as a microcosm of the modern world, can approach a more subtle and potentially spiritual view of nature.

Marco Pallis praises this book by Bhikshu Sangharak-shita for the clarity with which it is written making available to a more popular audience understanding of the three main pillars of Buddhism – Buddha, doctrine and the assembly of followers. The author concludes with a short survey of popular Buddhism and here ‘he shows that all the traditional institutions, when rightly understood, provide links and keys whereby the "three jewels" are kept continually in the minds of people like a seed which, ripened by good karma, will by and by flower in complete self-dedication to "the one thing needful."’

The reviewer J.C.Cooper, quotes Charles Luk's own words, that his only ambition is "to present as many Chinese Buddhist texts as possible, so that Buddhism can be preserved at least in the West, should it be fated to disappear in the East as it seems to be." In the light of the destruction of Buddhism in Tibet, Cooper says “the West must be doubly grateful to Charles Luk, for placing in its hands the possibility of helping to preserve some of the wisdom of the East” .Of the Surangama Sutra Luk writes:” This important sermon contains the essence of the Buddha's teaching and, as foretold by Him, will be the first sutra to disappear in the Dharma ending age."

Kathleen Raine reviews the reprint of this book and the impact its translator, Thomas Taylor the Platonist (1758-1837), exerted on 19th century thought. It was Taylor, first translator of Plato into English, who supplied the texts “from which the English Romantic poets learned the Neo-Platonism metaphysics which wrought so revolutionary a transforma¬tion in the theory and practice of poetry at the end of the eighteenth century.” Both the American Transcendentalists and the Neo-Platonists for the Theosophical Society drew their inspiration from these same works. Taylor is now only known to Academia, but “he was more than a scholar, he was a philosopher in the Platonic sense of the word."

“Kathryn Hulme's lively and very readable autobiography has as its underlying theme the impact made on her by G. I. Gurdjieff between 1930 and his death in 1949.” The reviewer, DMD, goes on to muse on the enigma of the person and teachings of Gurdjieff which remain to this day something of a mystery.